An Overview of Modern Data Processing Resources

C H A P T E R IV

Topic: An Overview of Modern Data Processing Resources

Submitted by: Marines B. Mamarlao
Lorna P. Vicente

Submitted to: Mr. Julius Cesar Mamaril

Course: IV BS Math major in (Computer Information Technology)
Objectives:

1. To describe the basic data processing resources used in contemporary information system.
2. To discuss the alternative for organizing data processing resources in an organization.
3. To analyze the basis for selecting appropriate data processing resources to support the information system.


DATA PROCESSING RESOURCES

The design blocks of input, processing, database, controls, an output are implemented in the form of four tangible data processing resources. These resources are data, hardware, software, and people. Each resource is viewed as equal part of the system. The most advance hardware is useless without equally good software development. Good software development occurs only through the efforts of good people. The success of the information system in satisfying users’ requirements is attained only by collecting, sorting, and processing the correct data.

Data
The purpose of an information system is to produce information which satisfies the needs of its user. The symbolic representation of reality, derive value from their use as the raw materials from which information is produce. The importance of understanding this relationship between data and information is increasing as more organizations perceive information as an organizational resource. To manage (i.e., plan and control) information as an organizational resource I, in reality, a requirement for managing data; this includes collection, processing, and storage.
The variety of data required to be collected, processed, and stored in an organization correlates directly with the information requirements of the organization. For example, where accounting requires financial information concerning the use of organizational resources, the appropriate data must be collected; where planning requirements require information regarding the future, data representing future events or desires must be recorded. Data input to an information system were classified:
1. Transaction
2. Expectations
3. queries
4. instructions
Data representing transactions are numerous and include: Personnel actions (e.g.,) hiring, promoting, firing, pay increases, job assignments, work locations); physical inventory movements (e.g., orders, receipts, withdrawals, down time, maintenance activity); customer communications (e.g., orders, returns, payments, inquiries). Data reflecting expectations include plans, budgets, standards, and schedules. Queries represent data inputs that include requirements for periodic reports, special request reports, for specific information for specific questions. Instructions are data represented by both clerical procedures and computer programs.
Data exist physically in many forms or as many media. The most common media are the verbal and writing word. Experiences such as registering for classes, paying utility bills, and traveling on toll roads illustrate data in the form of punched holes in a paper card. The growing use of tape recorders and video cassettes represents data recorded as magnetic spots on plastic tapes and disks until recent years the “private “ knowledge of computer specialists. Data are also represented by sensitized marks and bars as illustrated by bank checks and the labels on the goods we purchase at the supermarket.
Microfilm, a media often associated with government agents and espionage, has become an essential recording media in many organizations. Microfilm is not only an efficient form of recording for archival storage, but it can be useful for recording information needed in day-to-day operations. Blinking lights, pulsations, and meters are examples of other media on which data are recorded.
The variety of media used to record data represents the technology we have created to process data into information more efficiently than do alone. Much of this new media and its related technology were developed specifically to improve the efficiency of data processing with computers.
Source Document - recorded data continued to be written or typed on paper or a form. The data form a source document were then reproduced or converted into other media until the data were in a media capable of being processed by a computer. Source documents are converted to punched cards, punched tape, or magnetic tape in a manual keying operation (e.g., keypunch, teletypewriter, and key-to-tape). This media then enters the computer where the data are transferred to magnetic disk, drum, or tape. In subsequent processing, date forms the magnetic media are converted to computer memory each time they are required for processing. The data are returned to the magnetic media for storage, further processing, or conversion to another media for output (e.g., paper in the form of a paper). Data no longer need to be recorded on paper and converted to computer readable media.
Source Data Automation (SDA) – is the use of devices and techniques to eliminate or minimize media conversions. In the development of information systems, considerations for both the logical and physical aspects of collecting data are essential design tasks.

Set of user information requirement
First- what data must be collected to produce the required information;
Second- where these data can be collected; and
Third- how these data can be collected.

Information systems design includes the efficient collection of data to minimize both manual efforts and the amount of required media conversation activities. Traditional formal education emphasizes the use and structuring of data using verbal and written media. The uses of these media will importance in the future, we must understand how to use and structure data with the modern media developed for efficient computer processing. Each of these media has capabilities providing comparative advantages and disadvantages to one another depending on our objectives.

Hardware
Hardware – is a term used to describe any and all physical machines used in data processing. In a non computer system this might include pens, pencils, typewriters, calculators, file cabinets and etc. In a computer system, hardware refers to cards readers, printers, tape units, disk drives, central processing units, consoles, terminals, modems, and etc. A computer is composed of Central Processing Units (CPU) having arithmetic and logical capabilities, a mechanism for placing data input into the processing unit, a mechanism for storage of data during processing, and a mechanism that allows the operator to obtain as output the information that has been processed.
The computer’s capabilities are limited to doing arithmetic calculation and executing decisions having only two alternatives. Combining the computer’s basic capabilities with the decision making power, allows it to perform all of the data operation necessary to produce information. We use the term computer as though it were a single machine. Generally refer to as a computer us a series of machines or hardware units, more property termed a computing a computing system. The heart of a large computing system is the mainframe. The mainframe encompasses the CPU and a console, which is a hardware device (e.g., CRT, typewriter/printer) for limited input/output functions by the operator. The term peripheral is used to describe all of the additional hardware devices required for the input, output, storage, and data communication functions.
This distinction between mainframe and peripherals in a computing system is significant for several reasons. First, whereas the internal speed of the CPU or mainframe is measured in fraction of a second, the speed of peripheral hardware is significantly slower and is directly relayed to the data media being used. Second, the performance capabilities of a modern computing system must be viewed as dynamic rather than static. Third, computing systems can be designed using mainframes and peripherals form a variety of manufacturers.

Hardware can be upgraded or altered to provide increased performance capabilities in several ways:
1. The mainframe can be replaced by a larger, more powerful unit;
2. The existing mainframe can be enhanced by the addition of primary storage; and
3. The computing system can be enchanted by the addition of peripheral hardware.

Software
Software is a computer- related term that originally referred to all of the data processing resources that were not hardware; its usage tends to be restricted to include the procedures or specific instructions that descried the operations of the information system. This includes both clerical and machine instructions (i.e., computer programs). Its usage refers only to computer programs. The term documentation is then used to describe clerical procedures and the computer or people –version of the computer programs.
Three general categories of software are:
• Programming languages. Languages or instruction that the computer can follow, are of three types: 1. Machine languages is binary code that the computer interprets directly. For humans, this language is tedious to write as requires a programmer to keep track of storages locations of data and instructions in the form of string of 0’s and 1’s. Machine languages is efficient for the computer, but very inefficient for the programmer, and rarely used today to develop software. 2. Assembler language was developed in the early 1950s to lessen the tedium and quicken the slow development process caused by having to write programs in machine language. Assembler languages are made up of mnemonic operation codes and the symbolic addresses. This instruction must be translated into machine language that the computer understands. This translation is performed by an assembler program which converts the mnemonic operation codes and symbolic address (the source program) into machine processible form (the object program). 3. Compiler language are also known as high level, on people oriented languages because the instructions resemble the English language or mathematical expressions use by people. Source the program written by human has to compiled and translated into an object program that can be understood and executed by the computer.

• Operating systems. When a computer is acquired, the user is not merely buying hardware but also a means of meeting his or her needs through application programs, without having to be too concerned about the internal operations of the computer. This internal operations interface, called the operating system, drives the computer in the most efficient manner. It is made up of an integrated system of complex, sophisticated programs (usually written in machine or assembler language) that supervise the operations of the CPU, control input/output (I/O) functions, translate assembler and compiler languages into machine language, and provide a host of other support services.

The key components of the operating system
1. Supervise is similar to a traffic cop in that it directs I/O activities and handles interrupt conditions, job scheduling, program retrieval, and primary storage allocation. The I/O control system handles I/O scheduling, I/O error corrections, and other data management functions.
2. Data Communications Control Programs are included in systems that use a network of data communications channels and remote terminals.
3. Initial Program Loader is a small control program that loads the supervisor control program from a systems residence device (e.g., a magnetic disk) into primary storage when the computer begins operations.
4. Job Control Program’s function is to prepare the computer system for the start of the next job by executing job control language statements.

• Application and special service programs. Applications program can be classified into two broad categories. The first category of applications programs are those that are normally written by a programmer who works for the organization and limited to a particular function within a particular environment. The second category of applications programs, known as generalized or “canned” programs, are developed by computer manufacturers, independent software vendors, or other computer users, and are directed toward serving the needs of many users.
• Service Programs include aids like the following: (a) subroutines that consist of set of instructions that perform some common subordinate function within another program and that can be called in by that program when needed; (b) librarian programs that catalog, control, and maintain a directory of programs and subroutines which are stored on the library (usually magnetic disk) of computer system; (c) utility programs, a group of programs that performs various housekeeping functions such as sorts and merges, and file and memory dumps; and (d) various other services and aids such as simulators, emulators, statistical recording and reporting, and debug tools.

PEOPLE
The pace at which hardware and software resources are developed has often been a function of the availability of people who are trained to develop and operate the technology.
The Steering Committee is similar to a management committee or board of directors for the larger organization. This committee is comprised of representatives from the top management of the organization. Their primary function is to establish policy on aspects such as priorities for the development of the system. With the use of a steering committee, developmental coordination is facilitated and communication is increased; system development functions include hardware and software evaluation, analysis and design, and information systems planning. This may include operations research specialist who apply logico-mathematical models to the solution of different problems.
Programming management supervises the personnel who are responsible for the development and maintenance of the software. Systems Programmers develop and maintain the operating system and other technical systems software that controls the basic functions of the computer. They are highly trained individuals who have strong technical proficiency in hardware architecture and software. Application Programmers code, test, and implement new or existing computer programs for specific user applications (e.g., accounts receivable, payroll). This activity is sometimes further subdivided into new application program development or maintenance.
The Computer Operators monitor and control the computer through the central computer console. Peripheral equipment operators, in turn of assist the computer operators by setting up, operating, and unloading peripheral devices such as tape and disk drives, printers, card readers and punches, etc.
The production scheduler coordinates and controls the mix of data processing jobs to achieve optimum equipment utilization and service to the users.
A database administrator (DBA) designs and controls the database of the standards for the use, control, and enforces of all files comprising the database.

As formal information systems evolve in their use of technology and in the numbers of people they employ, further specialization occurs.
Functional Categories are:
1. Records or record management refers generally to managing traditional media such as paper or micrographics (e.g., microfilm).
2. Data communications refers to the rapidly growing area if both voice and data transmittal.
3. Word processing is a term used to describe the technology replacing traditional office equipment such as typewriters
The traditional concepts and practices of security within organizations have evolved to compensate for current developments in the use of modern information technology..

Organizing Data Processing Resources
Organizing resources is a management task derived from the traditional responsibility to control. Organizing data processing resources is also an information systems design decision.

Two directional flow lines

1. Centralized structure places data processing resources in a common physical location and administrative unit within an organization.
2. Distributed structure disperses data processing resources to individual locations or administrative units within the organization.
Hybrid structures – the structures represented by either a point on a flow line between the end points or a combination of end points.

Characteristics of individual resources within this overall structure

1. People - this organizational unit contains, for administrative purposes, all of the data processing and systems development personnel. The internal structure is generally some form of line (i.e., operations) and staff (i.e., developmental).
2. Hardware – A large, general purpose mainframe(s) and a large variety of related peripherals are housed in one physical area usually labeled the “Data Center”.
3. Software – Computer programs include vendor supplied (i.e., generally a sophisticated operating system), purchased (I.e., variety of control programs and application systems), and in house developed application programs.
4. Data – The design of data flows attempts to minimize the amount of redundant input.
Data Base Management System (DBMS) – the data base is controlled through the use of a specially purchased computer programs.

A hybrid structure can be formed an endless number of ways. A common structure combines a centralized administrative unit with several distributed units. In other organizations, hardware components are being distributed to selected user departments, but the support staffs and software development are maintained in a centralized administrative unit.
Each structure can provide a high degree of efficiency and effectiveness. In other words, the rationable for organizing data processing resources includes considerations beyond satisfying user information requirements, supporting systems integration, and implementing efficiency and effectiveness.





Historical Perspective

To gain insight into the current thinking pertaining to the organization of data processing resources, it is useful to develop a brief historical perspective concerning these resources.
The success in using modern data processing resources, combined with the growing awareness by users of the capabilities of these resources, results in a rising level of expectation for the performance of data processing organizations. To control the use of these resources and at the same time satisfy user expectations, management must continuously evaluate the organizational structure of its data processing resources.

Advantage of a Centralized Structure
1. It is readily applicable in organizations where most functional responsibilities are divided into line and staff for administrative purposes.
2. It supports the concept of economies of scale in the acquisition of hardware and software resources.
3. It permits the application of the division of labor principle by allowing individuals to specialize in either functional disciplines ( e.g., finance, manufacturing, purchasing ) or technological disciplines ( e.g., programming, system analysis, database ).
4. It facilities standardization in the selection of hardware, development of software, training of personnel, and structure of data.
5. It supports the use of project management techniques and concepts in the development of information system.
6. It provides job enrichment by permitting specialization and by providing career paths.

Disadvantage of Centralized Structure
1. Because of its size, its service levels are subject to the law of diminishing returns.
2. Its need for standardization often requires the use of rigid approaches to individual user needs and requests.
3. Its monolithic structure does not easily accommodation the rapid changes often required by its users.
4. It requires total management involvement and commitment to be effective.
5. Its adoption and use of technology is often uneven ( e.g., the latest mainframe but minimum SPA, POS, and COM equipment).
6. Its size and complexity are difficult to manage efficiently



Advantage of a Distributed Structure
1. It is easily adaptable where organizations are characterized by management style, service/ product, or geographical diversity.
2. It supports the concept of matching responsibility and authority.
3. It permits a more flexible approach to solving individual user needs.
4. It relative size and lack of complexity allow it to be more easily managed.
5. It provides job enrichment by allowing individuals to share or split responsibilities ( e.g., programming/ analyst, programmer/ operator ).

Disadvantage of distributed Structure
1. It requires extensive planning and coordination to prevent and minimize sub-optimization and fragmentation in the development of the overall information system.
2. it generally requires maintaining redundant resources.
3. It is often difficult to attract and maintain talented people into a “ small shop” environment.
4. Its technical performance is often poor, in spite of the appearance of acceptable service levels based on stated user satisfaction.
5. It is not always capable of taking advantage of the latest technology.
The main advantage of the hybrid structure is that it allow us to attain advantages from both the centralized and distributed structures as they appear applicable in the organization.
The main disadvantage to the hybrid structure is that it requires extensive organizational analysis and planning.

Factors that Influence selection
The decision as to how to design or structure data processing resources promises to be as interesting and controversial in the near future as it has been in the recent past. The continuing advancements in technology and the future changes in organizations will require numerous evaluations of the organizational placement of data processing resources.

An Example of a Centralized and a Distributed Structure
Description of two organizations and their approach to structuring data processing resources. Emphasis is given to describing the makeup of the physical components and some indication of their logical relationship. In each example, the flow and structure of data representing a major application area are highlighted. However, it is our intent at this time to provide a “real world” flavor for the many ideas and concepts fundamental to the decision process of selecting an organizational structure.
• Centralized Structure – the configuration of the hardware includes a large mainframe and the following peripherals equipment: a card reader/ punch unit, 12 high-speed tape drives, six large capacity disks, a high-speed printed, a communications controller, and a computer output microfilm device (COM).
Data entry devices includes: four keypunch/ verifier, six keyboard-to-tape machines, and a number of CRT’s, which are located at various work stations throughout the hospital. The software is composed of vendor-supplied, purchased, and hospital-developed programs.
The purchased software includes a data base management system, a generalized report writer, a communications program, and a general accounting application package. Each supervisor has responsibility for four to six operations. The System Development Manager has a staff of six systems analysts, 14 programmers, a database administrator (DBA), and a data communications specialist.
The recently developed Patient Control System (PCS) application of how this centralized structure provides efficient and effective use of the data processing resources. It is also provides a variety of other services and information to hospital administrators
• Distributed Structure – Burstraski, inc., is organized with three operating divisions and executive offices: the Taxarkana Division fabricates structures for oilfield drilling rigs; the Cleveland Division is an industrial painting company that applies protective coatings to railroad boxcars; the Austin Division is a freight transfer company with a large public warehouse; executive offices are located in New York.

Selecting Data Processing Resources
In this section we discuss the general framework of the decision process, emphasizing the role of various systems demands.

Decision- Making Criteria
The decision blocks that have the largest role in this decision process are the data processing and systems requirements.

A. Data Processing Requirements
The most fundamental demand on an information system is that of the users’ specific information requirements as expressed by the information attributes.
Four board categories of data processing requirements represent: (1) the volume of data involved, (2) the complexity of required data processing operations, (3) processing time constraints, (4) Computational demands.
Volume refers to the amount of data that must be processed in a given period to achieve an information goal.
Complexity refers to the number of intricate and interrelated data operations that must be performed to achieve an information goal.
Time constraints are defined as the amount of time permitted or acceptable between when data are available and when the information is required.
Computational demands are unique combination of volume, complexity, and time constraints, for a specific information requirement.
B. System requirements
System requirements are derived from the dynamic nature of the organization and its information system.
Reliability
It refers to how dependable a resource performs its function when called upon. Some people are more reliable than others; some machines are more reliable than others.
The Cost of developing and operating data processing resources is a system requirement. Identifying and quantifying the various cost elements is often the most critical demand.


Installation schedule
It refers to the time frame that originates when an organization recognizes a need and that ends when the solution to that need implemented.
Flexibility
It refers to the capability of a resource to changes in users’ requirements. The ability to adjust for wide fluctuation in data volumes to be processed in specific time periods is an example of the demand or flexibility.
Life expectancy refers to how long the organization’s needs are expected to exist.
Growth potential refers to how these needs will be met in future.
Maintainability is the systems requirement that provides this consideration. Although we may initially think of maintenance as related to hardware, it is an equally important consideration for all data processing resources.
Information systems are composed of logical and physical components. The physical components are called data processing resources and include data, hardware, software, and people,